Roman Republics 3 Branches of Government

From the Founding of Rome in about 753 BCE until 509 BCE, Rome  was a monarchy, ruled by kings. In 509 (or so), the Romans expelled their Etruscan kings and established the Roman Republic. Having witnessed the problems of the monarchy on their own land, and oligarchy and democracy among the Greeks, the Romans opted for a mixed constitution, which kept elements of all three types of government. Consuls: the Monarchical Branch Two magistrates called consuls carried on the functions of the former kings, holding supreme civil and military authority in Republican Rome. However, unlike the kings, the office of consul lasted for only one year. At the end of their year in office, the ex-consuls became senators for life, unless ousted by the censors. Powers of the Consuls: Consuls held imperium and had the right to 12 lictores (bodyguards) each.Each consul could veto the other.They led the army,Served as judges, andRepresented Rome in foreign affairs.Consuls presided over the assembly known as comitia centuriata. Consulship Safeguards The 1-year term, veto, and co-consulship were safeguards to prevent one of the consuls from wielding too much power. In emergencies such as times of war a single dictator could be appointed for a six-month term. Senate: the Aristocratic Branch Senate (senatus council of elders, related to the word senior) was the advisory branch of the Roman government, early on composed of about 300 citizens who served for life. They were chosen by the kings, at first, then by the consuls, and by the end of the 4th century, by the censors. The ranks of the Senate, drawn from ex-consuls and other officers. Property requirements changed with the era. At first, senators were only patricians but in time plebeians joined their ranks. Assembly: the Democratic Branch The Assembly of Centuries (comitia centuriata), which was composed of all members of the army, elected consuls annually. The Assembly of Tribes (comitia tributa), composed of all citizens, approved or rejected laws and decided issues of war and peace. Dictators Sometimes dictators were at the head of the Roman Republic. Between 501–202 BCE there were 85 such appointments. Normally, dictators served for six months and acted with the consent of the Senate. They were appointed by the consul or a military tribune with consular powers. The occasions of their appointment included war, sedition, pestilence, and sometimes for religious reasons. Dictator for Life In 82 BCE, after several battles and rebellions amounting to a civil war, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Sulla, 138–79 BCE) named himself dictator for as long as necessary—the first in 120 years. He stepped down in 79. In 45 BCE, the politician Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) was officially appointed dictator in perpetuo meaning that there was no set end point to his dominance; but he was assassinated on the Ides of March, 44 BCE. While Caesars death did not mean the end of the Roman Republic, the Gracci Brothers brought several reforms to the country, in the process starting a revolution. The Republic fell in 30 BCE. Sources and Further Information Kaplan, Arthur. Religious Dictators of the Roman Republic. The Classical World 67.3 (1973–1974):172–175.Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford UK: Clarendon Press, 1999.Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.  Pennell, Robert Franklin. Ancient Rome: From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A.D. Eds. Bonnett, Lynn, Teresa Thomason, and David Widger. Project Guttenburg, 2013.

Nazi Germany From A Historical Standpoint By Looking At...

Fascism became popular during World War I and continued to gain prominence as World War II came to a head. At this point, Nazi Germany’s sect of fascism, Nazism, would come to be one of the most well-known identifiers of the fascist ideals of racial hierarchy, anti-Semitism, and social Darwinism. Let it be known that Nazi Germany does not align consistently with all aspects of other fascist regimes, but for this assignment, I will be focusing on Nazi Germany. Nazi Germany, under Hitler, propagated racism through many different avenues. For the purpose of this paper, I will be evaluating racism in Nazi Germany from a historical standpoint by looking at Maus: A Survivor’s Tale and by evaluating Der Untergang. When we think about fascism, we often immediately think of Hitler and Nazi Germany during WW2, but fascism was around since the early 1900’s. The ideological roots of fascism have been around since the mid-1880s (Sternhell, 1998), but the timing was never right to act on them until the First World War came into salience. There are often preconceived notions that all fascism is the same, but in fact, the inclusion of the politically right-wing ideas into the Italian Fascist movement in the early 1920s created divisions within the fascist movement. â€Å"The left side of the Fascist movement included people who were committed to advancing national syndicalism as a replacement for parliamentary liberalism in order to modernize the economy and advance the interests of workers and

Government backed initiatives to promote female participation in STEM Free Essays

Introduction This essay aims to explore the UK based initiatives designed to promote female participation within Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematical (STEM) disciplines focusing predominately on Physics. The essay will consider the different teaching techniques and styles that have been researched and implemented in order to appeal specifically to a female audience and their relative success in terms of encouraging females to pursue both higher education in STEM based disciplines and careers. It has been well documented that women in STEM based subjects are under-represented which has lead to an absence of females actively employed within STEM careers. We will write a custom essay sample on Government backed initiatives to promote female participation in STEM or any similar topic only for you Order Now Women were only 12.3 per cent of the workforce in all STEM occupations including health and skilled trades in 2008. This is, however, an increase of 2.0 percentage points since 2003 (Kirkup, et al., 2010. Women and men in science, engineering and technology: the UK statistics guide 2010. Bradford: the UKRC) showing that there has been some successful work towards encouraging females towards STEM careers. This under-representation is no more apparent than within the science discipline of Physics, which displays the persistent problem of a lack of girls continuing to study physics after the age of 16 (physics is a compulsory part of the GCSE curriculum). A substantial number of girls do well at Key Stage 4 but do not choose to study physics post-16. In 2005, only 14% of girls who were awarded an A* or A for GCSE Double Award Science or physics progressed to A level physics (Hollins et al., 2006). Whilst there has been a small year-on-year increase in the number of A level physics cand idates between 2006 and 2008 (Institute of Physics, 2008), there has been little change in the proportion of girls that have taken the subject post-16. In 2008, only 22% of the entries for A-level Physics were female (Institute of Physics, 2008). These statistics can be seen clearly in the appendix where the number of female entries in 2008 actually illustrates a decrease in female uptake in comparison to 2007 of -0.3%. In addition, recruitment to biology has remained relatively stable with more females than males being entered for A-level examinations. Chemistry entries for both male and females are relatively equal and mathematics still sees a top-heavy male count, although less dramatically than physics. There has been an extensive amount of research into the potential reasons behind the consistently low numbers of females within Physics. The development of institutionalised education in England was based on principles of class and gender differentiation (Purvis, 1981) and many scholars attribute existing gender culture today to their historical roots where middle-class girls were to be educated to take up roles as wives and mothers of elite men. Consequently, physics, with its high mathematical content and often abstract ideas, was a subject thought suitable only to males with girls focusing on the religious and moral aspects of science and the possibilities it provided for enhancing domestic accomplishments. Many still believe connotations of this attitude exist today and while it is important to recognise that although ‘educational policy may change, what students, their parents and their teachers have come to understand as appropriate ways for girls and boys to be, to know and to behave, will continue to reflect the historical roots of the culture’ (Murphy,P.,Whitelegg,E .,2006). In addition, research by Alison Kelly (1987) identifies three factors that appear to account for a lack of interest by women in science, namely women see it as likely to be difficult, masculine, and impersonal. A number of modern day initiatives and specific teaching techniques have been coined to address these misconceptions and will be explored, with their relative success critiqued, in the remaining body of the essay. Many initiatives to encourage female participation in science try to address the causes of the phenomena known in academia as the ‘leaky pipeline’. The phrase has been devised to illustrate what statistics clearly show, much like a ‘leaky pipeline’, women steadily drop out of the science educational system, which carries students from secondary school through university and on to a job in STEM. Figure 1 illustrates the risks that may be experienced by women already in the science pipeline upon commencement of a STEM based career. Source: International federation of university women [image online] Available at: http://www.ifuw.org/imgs/blog/blog_leaky_pipeline.jpg [Accessed 16 April 2011]. Pell (1996) acknowledges that much of the selection between men and women has taken place even before academia is entered arguing that critical phases in the selection towards an academic career include early childhood, adolescence, school years and the job entry period. Pell gives development of self-esteem in early life-course, student-teacher interaction in classrooms leading to lower aspirations amongst girls, fewer female role models, and conflicts with family responsibilities, as some of the reasons for the ‘leak’ in the pipeline. Blickenstaff. J (2005) argues alternatively that ‘no one in a position of power along the pipeline has consciously decided to filter women out of the STEM stream, but the cumulative effect of many separate but related factors results in the sex imbalance in STEM that is observed today’. Many believe the ‘leakage’ from the pipeline requires a multi-faceted solution, and time is needed to allow innovations in teach ing and learning to take effect, only then will this be evident within the statistics often used to prove such initiatives have failed. It can be questioned whether the merit of such initiatives can so quickly be analysed and concluded as failures if they have not had sufficient time to evolve. For example, the increase of girls choosing to study physics may only see an increase in numbers once teaching practices, academic relevance of the syllabus and functional support networks are truly aligned together and are sustainable. This issue has been further addressed by Cronin and Roger (1999) who point out that initiatives to bring women and science together focus on one of three areas: attracting women to science, supporting women already in science, or changing science to be more inclusive of women, however, some initiatives emphasise one or two of these possibilities and ignored the other(s). A.Phipps (2008) reasons that the important initiatives designed to address the problem are under-researched allowing little opportunity for educational practitioners, activists, policy-makers and scholars to analyse and learn from the practices and policies that were developed over the past decade. Outside of the classroom, many initiatives and organizations have been set up to encourage, support and engage women within STEM careers. One of the most prominent and long running initiatives, Women In Science and Engineering (WISE) was founded in 1984 with the aim of encouraging understanding of science among young girls and women and to promote choosing it as a career. WISE provide a range of different services and initiatives in order to achieve this aim, and engage with other organisations that provide such services. This includes resources for girls, teachers and parents. More can be found on their website . There is only limited work evaluating the impact of WISE policies since the organization began. Phipps (2008) suggests that although school visits by WISE did have a positive effect on girls’ opinions of science this was not translated into long term change in their career ambitions. Alternatively, WISE claim that the campaign has helped to double the percentage of f emale engineering graduates from 7% in 1984 to 15% today. They claim the success of the WISE programmes can only be measured using the proportions of engineering students and engineers who are female (WISE, 2010). To date, however, there has been no onward tracking of participants from the WISE outlook programme. This leads others to be more critical with Henwood (1996) claiming WISE have ‘inadvertently limited the ways in which girls and women could discuss the challenges they faced’ and with no detailed research evaluating whether various actions and policies by WISE have produced the impact, it can be hard to attribute the growth to WISE without questioning whether other factors were at play. Phipps (2008) echoes this uncertainty stating ‘it is difficult to definitely conclude that WISE policies have been the decisive or contributory factor in encouraging female participation in scientific careers’. The UK government made a firm commitment to remedy the current situation assisting with the launch, in 2004, of the UK Resource Centre (UKRC) for Women in SET (science, engineering and technology). This organisation aims to provide practical support and help in order to encourage more women to take up a career in STEM (UKRC, 2007; Wynarczyk, 2006, 2007a). However, the activities of the UKRC are predominantly focused on the participation of women in STEM careers and its responsibility does not include education. With the greater focus on evaluative data, the UKRC holds and actively records the numbers of women with whom it has engaged in its work, and also collects statistics on the outcomes for returners in its programmes (UKRC, 2010). Many have criticized the large number of non-governmental organisations and initiatives involved in the STEM sector stating that the process is fragmented and uncoordinated to the extent that policy and initiatives may be unable to reach their full potential. The STEM Cross-Cutting Programme also concluded that ‘at the current time there are far too many schemes, each of which has its own overheads’.(DfES, 2006a: p.3). Despite this, the Government has substantially increased its STEM education budget and activities in an attempt to reverse the current STEM trends including cash initiatives to encourage more physics trained teachers, (Jha,A,. Guardian online 2005 ‘New incentives for maths and physics teachers’ [Available online] ). Within the current UK educational system, educators have been working for many years to encourage more girls to participate in school science through programs like Girls Into Science and Technology (GIST) and Computer Clubs for Girls (CC4G). The later is a not-for profit employer led organisation licensed by the government with the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) currently funding it. Furthermore, the UK Government is providing support for schools to encourage more girls to study physics and to help them to become more confident and assertive in the subject. Approaches to teaching physics with an emphasis on physics as a ‘socially relevant and applied subject has led to higher attainment for both males and females’ (Murphy and Whitelegg, 2006). Previous research has also indicated that girls are motivated to study physics when they can see it as part of a ‘pathway to desirable careers’ (Murphy and Whitelegg, 2006). Successful approaches t o making physics more relevant to girls included, as presented in ‘Girls into physics-Action research’: Integrating physic-related careers in class (e.g. through direct references, set assignments, posters and displays in the classroom). Creating opportunities in lessons for students to explore the social relevance of physics (including the roles of physicists). Real life experiences with work experience and role models were also effective in ‘bringing physics to life’. Source: Daly.A et al 2009, Girls into physics- Action Research, Research brief. Page 2. [Available online] http://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RB103.pdf However, several challenges are related to these approaches. Some students, especially those of a younger age group, struggle to articulate their careers aspirations and there may also be a lack of knowledge about career options among teachers. This could add pressure onto the teacher as they feel the need to research and bring these elements into their lesson planning and schemes of work (SoW). It is already well documented about the time constraints many teachers experience with regards to sufficient planning and marking time. It could be suggested that with the low number of trained physics teachers available within the educational system at this time and their high demand (Institue of Physics, Physics and: teacher numbers, 2010), that additional content beyond that of the curriculum could put viable trainees off this career and potentially push them into other subject areas where there is less additional material to deal with. Availability of school resources could also be a prob lem. The ‘Girls into physics action research’ commissioned by the Institue of physics and undertaken by Daly.A., et al (2009) aims to address five key assumptions that girls have about physics identfied in prior research by Murphy,P and Whitelegg,E (2006). This essential practice (figure 2) is deemed to support female participation within physics and it is hoped that it will be adopted as part of the classroom management. Figure 2: Essential practice that supports girls participation in physics Source: Daly.A., et al 2009, GIRLS INTO PHYSICS – ACTION RESEARCH, Figure 2, page 6. [Available online] http://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RR103.pdf The research, also carried out on behalf of the Department for Education (DfES), recommends numerous ‘top tips’ for successful teaching and learning with these suggestions available to view in the appendix. These tips have been identified by teachers who have shown some success in enagaing female students. Alternatively, B. Ponchaud (2008) conducted a review within schools where the female uptake of physcis was already particularly high. Ponchaud identified several top tips for teachers to use to engage female students. 1Encourage collaboration in learning through more group discussion and activities. 2Present the big picture whenever possible rather than just concentrating on individual ideas. 3Give students the privacy and confidence to take risks in their thinking and responses by careful use of formative questions and the use of individual whiteboards for example. 4Vary the grouping in class for practical and other activities to avoid some students dominating and others (often girls) becoming passive. 5Don’t ‘talk equations’; develop ideas before using technical language and then use it in context. 6Use a variety of illustrations based on male and female students’ interests. 7Use a variety of analogies that help the student and accept, for discussion, any they suggest. 8Have an explicit rationale for teaching, which includes social relevance. Table 1: B.Ponchard’s top tips to engage female students in physics Source: Ponchaud, B, The Girls into Physics project. School Science Review, March 2008, 89(328) Antonia Rowlinson from St Anthony’s RC girls’ school implemented the ‘top tips’ without the need to alter the curriculum. Physics was contextualised or illustrated in the areas of interest revealed by Ponchaud’s investigation. For example, within the forces module, questions on friction were set in the context of the then current Strictly Come Dancing television programme. The follow-up survey showed that ‘whilst this new teaching technique had not substantially shifted the students’ perceptions about physics there were improvements. More girls saw physics as relevant to their career aspirations’ (Ponchaud 2008). In conclusion, evidence clearly shows that an under-representation of females is a cause for concern. Girls perceive themselves to be less capable and less interested, than boys, in science and these attitudes can be attributed to historical views of women that are proving hard to dismiss. Many believe that science educators have a responsibility to change those factors under their control. Over time, individual actions by teachers will help girls to break down the filter in the STEM pipeline and result in equal participation, benefiting society. Teachers should pay attention to the way they address and present physics, watching out for language and terminology, which has a vast psychological effect for females who may suffer from stereotype threat and believe they are not capable. I have also explored the idea that girls respond to physics when it is taught in an accessible and socially relevant way but countered this with the argument of teaching time constraints and available school resources. Work that examines the overall successful impact of initiatives and policies aimed at promoting the cause of women in science has provided a mixed verdict and can be open to critique. It seems apparent that although these initiatives specifically target the thoroughly researched reasons why females may disengage from physics and science as whole, they cannot systematically prove that the apparent incremental growth in participation figures are down to the programmes and measures they have put in place. Only recently, has initiatives such as UKRC began to collect evaluative data on the amount of women that have been effected by their work. Some texts have assumed a positive impact for various policies, citing increases in the proportions of women pursuing certain courses as evidence for different policies’ success (e.g. WISE, 2010). I have explored such critique on this view including Phipps (2008) who recognises the limited successes and impact of initiatives in general, but t empers this with statements acknowledging the wide range of challenges facing these initiatives. I believe that when more organisations begin to record and monitor engagement rates as a direct result of exposure to a particular initiative, successful programmes will become more apparent. However, I also realize that many of these organisations have limited funding and capabilities disabling them from doing this as they focus budgets on areas addressing there inherit strategy. Until this is addressed with additional funding, I fear the exact effects of many of these initiatives will never be known and it will remain a subject for academic discussion. References Blickenstaff, J C (2005). Women and science careers: leaky pipeline or gender filterGender and Education Vol. 17, No. 4, October 2005, pp. 369–386 Cronin, C. Roger, A. (1999) Theorizing progress: women in science, engineering, and technology in higher education, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(6), 639–661. Computer Club for Girls. Accessed on 16/04/2011 http://www.cc4g.net/ Daly.A ,Laura Grant.L2 and Karen Bultitude. K, GIRLS INTO PHYSICS – ACTION RESEARCH, Research brief. [Available online] Daly.A ,Laura Grant.L2 and Karen Bultitude. K, GIRLS INTO PHYSICS – ACTION RESEARCH,[Available online] http://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RR103.pdf DfES, (2006a), ‘The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Programme Report’, HMSO, ISBN: 978-184478-827-9 Henwood, F. (1996), ‘WISE ChoicesUnderstanding occupational decision-making in a climate of equal opportunities for women in science and technology’, Genderand Education, 8 (2), 119-214. Hollins, M., Murphy, P., Ponchaud, B. and Whitelegg, E. (2006) Girls in the Physics Classroom: A Teachers’ Guide for Action. London, Institute of Physics Institute of Physics (2010) Physics and: teacher numbers, An Institute of Physics briefing note: Institute of Physics (2008) Year on year increase of physics A-level entrants. Available from: Kelly, A. 1987,Science for girlsPhiladelphia, PA: Open University Press Kirkup, G., Zalevski, A., Maruyama, T. and Batool, I. (2010). Women and men in science, engineering and technology: the UK statistics guide 2010. Bradford: the UKRC. Murphy, P. and Whitelegg, E. (2006) Girls in the Physics Classroom: A Review of the Research on the Participation of Girls in Physics. London, Institute of Physics Murphy., P and Whitelegg., E (2006) ‘Girls and physics: continuing barriers to ‘belonging†, Curriculum Journal, 17: 3, 281 — 305 Pell AN (1996). Fixing the leaky pipeline: women scientists in academia. Journal of animal science, 74 (11), Phipps, A. (2008). Women in Science, Engineering, and Technology: three decades of UK initiatives. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books Ponchaud, B, The Girls into Physics project. School Science Review, March 2008, 89(328) Purvis, J. (1981) The double burden of class and gender in the schooling of working-class girls in nineteenth-century England 1800–1870, in: L. Barton S. Walker (Eds) Schools, teachers and teaching (Barcombe, Falmer Press). Women in Science and Engineering (WISE). Accessed on 16/04/2011 Women in Science and Engineering Research Project. A publication by The Scottish Government. Accessed on 16/04/2011 Wynarczyk, P. (2006), â€Å"An International Investigation into Gender Inequality in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)†, Guest Editor, Journal of Equal Opportunities International, Special Issue, Volume 25, issue 8, December. Wynarczyk, P., (2007a), ‘Addressing the â€Å"Gender Gap† in the Managerial Labour Market: The Case of Scientific Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the North East of England’, Management Research News: Communication of Emergent International Management Research, v.30:11, 12 Wynarczyk, P and Hale 2009, Take up of Science and Technology Subjects in Schools and Colleges: A Synthesis Review. Commissioned by: Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), and the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) How to cite Government backed initiatives to promote female participation in STEM, Essay examples

Comparing immigration policies

Questions: 1. Explain in plain English the practical implications of the decision of the Federal Court in Yelaswarapu v Minister for Immigration Anor? 2. What principles of statutory interpretations (if any) were utilised by the Federal Court in this case? Answers: 1. In this case the applicant is a person who had applied for a student visa and the respondents are the ministry of immigration as the first respondent and the Migration review tribunal as the second respondent[1]. The application of the applicant was rejected as tribunal found that the filing was not on time and it had no jurisdiction over the matter. The applicant had lodged a student visa application online on 14th may 2001 and the address provided by the applicant online was a purported postal address which was same as his residential address. The minister had refused to grant visa to the applicant as it found that the applicant was not able to satisfy condition 8516 and there was no concrete evidence that he managed to get enrolled in a full time course in Australia. The decision was attempted to be notified to the applicant through post but was returned on the grounds that the address was not correct. The letter was then sent to another address so that the applicant could be notified. The department forwarded an email to the applicant that they have made a decision regarding the application and it had been sent to wrong address due to administrative error. The application in reply request ed to send the letter again at the provided address. The letter was according to the request sent to the new address and an application was made for the review of the decision to the tribunal. The tribunal in this case had a view that the applicant was not able to file the application within time and he had been properly notified via email of the decision made by the immigration department. The applicant filed a review with the court of appeal against the decision made by the tribunal. Initially the court of appeal ruled that there was a judicial error in the part of the tribunal in ruling that it had no jurisdiction over the matter. The court determined that the only issue which exists between the party is that whether the decision of the tribunal court in relation to its jurisdiction was correct or not. The court in this case determined that the court book of the tribunal did not have all relevant information in relation to the communication which took place between the applicant and the respondent. The court ruled that in order to determine whether the the decision made by the tribunal in relation its jurisdiction was correct or not it has to be determined that whether the immigration department was able to notify the applicant of its decision in a proper way or not. The court of appeal had ordered the minister to file another supplementary notebook with the court in relation to the communication process. The court had evidence before it that the immigration department had made several attempts to notify its decision to the applicant. The court also considered the affidavit filed by the applicant that he had not received the letter and there was no objection on the part of the respond ants in relation to the affidavit. The ministers in this case argued that the notification letter was was sent to the applicant can be regarded as sufficient notification as provided by the provisions of the Migration Act 1958[2] and the migration regulation 1994[3] and therefore the decision of the tribunal that it lacked jurisdiction was correct according to the respondents. In response to the argument made by the respondent the applicant stated that the application made by him for the review of the decision was according to the provisions of Section 338(2) and was made within the prescribed period according to the provisions of Section 347(1) (b) (i) of the Act. in addition the applicant provided that his the application was made according to Regulation 4.10 of the migration regulation 1994 according to which an application can be made before the tribunal within a period of 21 days from the date on which the letter was actually received by the applicant. The applicant also argued on the basis of section 66(1) of the act that the minister has the duty to notify the applicant on whteher his application for the visa had been successfully or not. The court in this case reconsidered the process of communication of the letter of refusal by the departments of immigration to the visa applicant. The court in this case found that the applicant had failed to provide a genuine and correct address at the time of application where the ministry could have sent successful post. The ministry in this case had made not one but several attempts in order to notify the applicant that his application has been refused. The department of immigration had also complied totally with all the relevant section according to the Migration Act and regulations which are section 494B and 494C according to which the letter had to be dispatched within three days and through a registered post. The court in this case found that although according to law it has to be deemed that the letter is received by the applicant within 7 days from its dispatch if this literal meaning is given to the rule that it would defeat the intention of the parliament which actually wants the letter to be received by the applicant. It was also made clear by the court in this case that the visa application made by the applicant was valid even if the address provided in it was not correct. The court after considering all the relevant facts of the case ruled that even through the immigration department had made several efforts to notify the application of its decision the application was notified only when the applicant actually received the letter. Therefore the period of 21 days under which the application has to be made would start from the day when the letter was actually received by the applicant. Thus the court passed the writs of Certiorari and Mandamus for quashing the record of the migration court and to redetermine the application made by the applicant before it. 2. The statutory principles of interpretation may be defined as a procedure to determine if a particular statute is applicable to specific circumstances and if so, then what consequences it would lead to[4]. There are mainly three essential principles that are followed by the judiciary system for the purpose of interpretation. The court relies on the following rules for interpreting the statutes: The Literal Rule- this rule is applied to construe the literal meaning of the words of a particular statute. This rule has been explained in the Engineering case as an essential rule of interpretation and that any statute is to be interpreted in accordance with the intent of the parliament that has legislated it. The intent of the Parliament can be determined by examining the language that has been used in the entire statute[5]. The Golden Rule- this rule enables the court to modify or depart from the literal meaning of the statute in case when such meaning leads to absurd consequences or when the language of the statute is unambiguous. The Mischief Rule- the courts must interpret a statute in such a way so as to suppress the mischief underlying in the statute and to advance the relief or remedy[6]. In the context of the case of Yelaswarapu v Minister for Immigration Anor [2012], the Federal court has applied both the literal and the Golden rule of statutory interpretation. The tribunal rejected the review application on the ground that it lacked jurisdiction in the matter, as the review application was required to be submitted within 21 days after receiving the notice, which Mr. Yelaswarapu submitted after 44 days. The First Respondent contended that Mr. Yelaswarapu failed to provide a valid address in the form that invalidates the visa application. However, the Federal Court interpreted literally Section 25C of the Interpretation Act 1901 according to which when an act is prescribed by the Act then strict compliance of the form is not compulsory and substantial compliance is sufficient unless any contrary intention is determined. Again, when the first respondent contended that the Minister has complied with all the statutory provisions regarding serving the notice of rejecting the application and to check the validity of address was an intolerable burden. The Federal Court applied the golden rule and interpreted that Mr. Yelaswarupa has not deliberately concealed his address and it was a mistake. But he completed his application and the visa application was complete and valid thereafter. The court held that the applicant was not adequately notified about the notice and he submitted the application within time period before the Tribunal and hence is entitled to relief. References Blomley, Nicholas K. "Interpretive practices, the state and the locale."The Power of Geography (RLE Social Cultural Geography): How Territory Shapes Social Life(2014): 175. Gluck, Abbe R. "The Federal Common Law of Statutory Interpretation: Erie for the Age of Statutes." (2013). MacCormick, D. Neil, and Robert S. Summers.Interpreting statutes: a comparative study. Routledge, 2016. Migration Act 1958 Migration Regulation 1994 YELASWARAPU v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION ANOR [2012] FMCA 849 (21 December 2012) Bibliography Aas, Katja Franko.The borders of punishment: Migration, citizenship, and social exclusion. Oxford University Press, 2013. Beine, Michel, et al. "Comparing immigration policies: An overview from the IMPALA database."International Migration Review(2015). Brettell, Caroline B., and James F. Hollifield.Migration theory: Talking across disciplines. Routledge, 2014. Hawthorne, Lesleyanne, and Anna To. "Australian Employer Response to the Study?Migration Pathway: The Quantitative Evidence 2007?2011."International Migration52.3 (2014): 99-115. Schilling, Meredith. "Migration law [Book Review]."Victorian Bar News160 (2016): 96. YELASWARAPU v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION ANOR [2012] FMCA 849 (21 December 2012) Migration Act 1958 Migration Regulation 1994 MacCormick, D. Neil, and Robert S. Summers.Interpreting statutes: a comparative study. Routledge, 2016. Gluck, Abbe R. "The Federal Common Law of Statutory Interpretation: Erie for the Age of Statutes." (2013). Blomley, Nicholas K. "Interpretive practices, the state and the locale."The Power of Geography (RLE Social Cultural Geography): How Territory Shapes Social Life(2014): 175.

Incas Essays - Andean Civilizations, Inca Empire, Sapa Inca

Incas INCAS The vast Inca empire, with its advanced culture and powerful armies, spanned most of the Andes along South America's western coast at the time of Spanish conquest in the early 16th century. The Incas had a very clear social structure. The ruler, Sapa Inca, and his wives, the Coyas, had supreme control over the empire. The High Priest and the Army Commander in Chief were next. Then came the Four Apus, the regional army commanders. Next came temple priests, architects, administrators and army generals. Next were artisans, musicians, army captains and the quipucamayoc, the Incan accountants. At the bottom were sorcerers, farmers, herding families and conscripts. WHO THE INCAS WERE The 16th-century written accounts of the Incas do not provide a very complete understanding of the economic and political organization of their state. It is clear, however, that the principles of Inca economics and politics were taken from old Andean traditions and were very different from European ones. The I nca state was not under the absolute control of its ruler. It was an array of dozens, if not hundreds, of different political, ethnic, and even linguistic groups. In order to maintain unity within the empire, an attempt was made to introduce uniform organizational and administrative procedures to the realm. This process, however, was far from complete in 1532, and administrative practices varied greatly from one part of the empire to another. An unusual characteristic of the Inca state was its ability to move people about the empire as colonists far from their homes. This custom of internal colonization allowed the Incas to place loyal groups in regions that were difficult to control. The practice also appears to have had economic aims in some cases; people could be relocated to develop new lands, new mines, or other

Select vs. Selected

Select vs. Selected Select vs. Selected Select vs. Selected By Maeve Maddox The English verb select and the adjectives, select and selected, derive from a Latin verb meaning, â€Å"to choose, select, set apart.† Both adjectives mean, â€Å"chosen from a larger number of other things.† However, a useful distinction exists between selected and select. selected This adjective indicates that something has been chosen or picked out from a larger number; the reason for the selection is usually made clear by the context. For example, researchers may track the distribution of workers engaged in â€Å"certain selected occupations.† The occupations have been selected according to criteria set by the researchers for their study. An accountant wants to know if she can restrict her reports â€Å"only to certain selected users.† The accountant has specific criteria for her selection of people who will have access to the reports. select This adjective indicates that whatever was chosen out of a larger number was chosen on account of excellence or superiority. For example, â€Å"Hermes Paris caters to a select clientele.† Because Hermes products are expensive, select indicates that the people who shop there are superior to other people because they have the money to pay for luxury items. â€Å"The agency did its hiring from a select group of college graduates.† Here the use of select implies that the graduates were chosen from among other graduates by reason of superior intellect and ability. Both select and selected are popular with advertisers, but select is frequently confused with selected. Here are some examples from the Web: â€Å"Hyundai offers discount on selected car models† Appropriate use; some models are discounted, but not all. â€Å"Remington Shaver Charging Cord for Select Models† Inappropriate use; the sense is that the cord will work with some models, but not with all. â€Å"LifeProof New Case for Select Apple iPad Models† Inappropriate use; the sense is that the case will fit some models, but not all. Save select to mean something that is perceived to be above the ordinary in quality, cost, recognition, social status, or the like. The following examples use select in this sense: NFL offensive rookie pick in select company Special terms allow students to attend select schools in nearby states for a fraction of out-of-state tuition. Bryan Sutton keeps select company with the very best musicians in bluegrass, those musicians who may have peers but no superiors. The most select club in Hollywood: The Hitchcock Blondes A third [executive] obtained permission from a select group of local influencers to list their names on his nonprofit’s letterhead.   An NQDP plan must be restricted to a select group of management or highly compensated employees. Dr. Jackson was among a select group of presidents and chancellors invited to participate. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Because Of" and "Due To" How to spell "in lieu of"Uses of the Past Participle

SWOT Analysis. Avon Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

SWOT Analysis. Avon - Case Study Example Strength †¢ The company had a wide range of products to be marketed, from skin care to fragrances for both men and women †¢ It had a market coverage in 137 countries and marketed its products with the assistance of over 3 million sales representatives †¢ Most of the marketing strategies were directed towards the young generation which was termed as the most potential market segment in the personal care industry †¢ The company focused on direct selling, retail selling through kiosks and online selling as its marketing strategy which helped it to be focused and also simplified the organizational operations Weaknesses †¢ Avon’s financial structure was remarkably weakening with stagnant sales revenue and lower growth rate †¢ The brand image of the company got fragmented due to over diversification of the product line †¢ Lack of aggressive purchase of Avon products by targeted customers, i.e. the Generation Y †¢ Increasing competition in online selling †¢ Loyalty in brand segments were unequal due to inadequate distribution channels †¢ Growth in all the sectors were not adequate, i.e. in the women section the company had a significant growth comprising of elderly females while in the men’s section the company was quite weak ... in the women section the company had a significant growth comprising of elderly females while in the men’s section the company was quite weak Inefficiency in the recruitment and retaining of quality employees Increasing competition in online marketing along with major disputes between the company’s strategies and the interests of sales representatives Markets were weakening in the developed economies including the European region Opportunities The Personal-Care industry was growing, although it at a slower pace Reliable growth in the hair-care section in the market segment based on ethnic backgrounds of the customers Rapid growth was witnessed in the personal hygiene, men’s fragrances and makeup/color cosmetics sections Spa services were gaining consistent attention among the customers and marketers as a medium to generate higher customer loyalty Personal care products were highly favored by the Generation X customers Kiosks were receiving more and more attention in the industry supply chain North and South America were termed as the most potential markets for personal care products Online selling is most likely to gain a rapid growth in the near future The regulatory framework supported the operations of self-inspections, good manufacturing and maintenance of good relation with the regulatory bodies It had only two major competitors, i.e. Mary Kay Inc. and L’Oreal Mary Kay had no growth with weak existence in the women section Threats Mary Kay had only 8 categories of products with 200 different product lines primarily focused on the men’s section with limited women customers Mary Kay also segmented its market only in

Relationship between the international law and Sultanate of Oman's Essay

Relationship between the international law and Sultanate of Oman's municipal law - Essay Example Oman has a history of using the Sharia law that is given the priority as the basis of legislation and customary obligations in this society. Although the Oman’s Sultanate law has attempted to harmonize their laws to conform to the international laws, the country is depicted as a violator of the general law to which all nations are subject to. This has had an impact on Oman in that it has had a challenge in coping with other nations and the international law as a whole. This law system has garnered a wide range of interest from scholars intending to identify that this system of law has with the international law. The international law provides a framework for stable and well-grounded international relations between states and nations. These laws are consent based and states are not obliged to adhere to these laws unless they have opted to be bound by specific international legal clauses. Member countries that are abound by this law are also subjects of the International tribuna ls such as the international criminal court. International laws can be sourced either from treaties or customs in a nation that are generally accepted as basic in the world. Treaties constitute agreements between nations that decide to conduct their operations across their boundaries. On the other hand, customary laws, that form part of the international customary law, are developed from some internationally acceptable standards within countries (Beckman and Butte, 2012). They are sourced from the customs of the people in various nations. Unlike the other international laws, the international customary laws bind every state and they generally used in solution of crisis that seems to negate the standards laws that apply in all states. Sultanate Oman is an Arabian state located in the southern part of western Asia bordered by the United Arab Emirates. The legal system of this kingship is governed by the Sharia or Muslim laws that are often applied in the Sharia Law courts, the justice 's chambers. The customary law of Sultanate Oman was developed to regulate the human behavior in matters of inheritance, land ownership, marriages, social conflicts and cultural matters. Although the legal system is evident, the country allows some cultural issues to be handled in the traditional methods where a jury if formed by elders to mediate on specific matters of the community. Most customary laws and regulations are not documented and their application is personalized and their application is often personalized (OmaniLaw, 2013). The undocumented laws have raised questions about whether the Sultan Oman is a free state with a well-developed government system. The international law conflicts with the Sultane Oman customary Law on various grounds. One the of point where the two legal systems drift is the application of human rights that is subject to the Oman’s customary laws. The provisions of the international are that all members be from the Free states and such as a s tate must have a fully developed system and be regarded as a state by other states. Consequently, there is a general notion that Oman is a state that is not tied to the international law. However, the international customary law has all states as subjects and human rights is part of the core concern of the international customary law. One issue that has raised alarm in Oman as a country that pays less

Native American Spiritual Artwork Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Native American Spiritual Artwork - Essay Example Similarly, the beautifully art-worked moccasin foot ware of Cherokee tribe are also seen as something sacred and this is evident when in a poem, the Native American man sings, â€Å"I put them on. I walked sacred on the land† (Williams et al., 31). On the performance side also, it can be seen that Native American dance is not simply an art form or a mode of entertainment but is deeply embedded with spiritualism (Sun Dance). Dance even becomes a form of prayer for these tribes (Sun Dance). In this way, â€Å"American art provides a mean for people to connect to the sacred† (Zimmerman, 94). It is observed that â€Å"animism† is the prevalent common theme of all Native American art (Dagan). The spiritual meaning of animism is a belief that â€Å"all things (in this world) are in unity† with each other (Dagan). Animism is also considered as the â€Å"oldest spiritual perspective in the world† (Dagan). The visualization of animism in Native Indian art ca n be seen as â€Å"spirals or zigzag lines† in paintings and carvings (Dagan). An interesting aspect of Native American art is that a spiritual experience is what ends up as an art work for a tribesman (Zimmerman, 94). Zimmerman has given an example for this when he said, â€Å"a dream might reveal to the artist a design for a warrior’s shield or part of a dancer’s regalia† (94).... It was a spiritual retreat in which a large number of participants would fast, pray and dance for a period of days. They asked for answers to events going on in their lives† (Sun Dance). Half-man-half –beast images are also part of this spiritual philosophy (Dagan). It is these spiritual creatures that are supposed to guide the shaman through the path between the two worlds (Dagan). The same figures can be seen in the paintings, carvings and performance arts of Native Americans (Dagan). While exploring Native American performance art, it has to be kept in mind that â€Å"Native American dance is meant to channel spiritual energies or reanimate ancient stories that can be caused to re-appear in the world today† (Dagan). A magical web, the dream catcher, is yet another figure that appears in many forms of Native American art (Dagan). Also, the wolf being a sacred animal for Native Americans, it has gained a place in Indian art as well (Dagan). Apart from these commo n themes, there are different concepts of art and spirituality prevalent among different Indian tribes. For example, many â€Å"clan crests, songs, stories, (and) regalia (hats, blankets, tunics etc.) and clan houses† are considered ‘at.o?ow’ by Tlingit clan thereby wiping out the difference between what is art and what is mundane (Willaims et al., 139). The borders of physical and spiritual worlds thus overlap. An at.o?ow is a clan property that has social and spiritual importance (Williams et al., 139). From this example, it can be seen that traditional artworks as well as art forms like songs and stories have a spiritual role in Native American culture. Similarly, in the Pueblo community, the embroidery done by traditional weavers

Case Study of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill and the Resultant Changes

Case Study of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill and the Resultant Changes Research report of this case study is regarding of the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster. Exxon Mobil Corporation is found on 30th November 1999 by merging Exxon and Mobil and its the largest publicly traded companies in the world. It is in the rank of #1 or #2 for the past 5 years. By the time it reached March 1989, a worst tragedy took place where caused by one of the largest super tanker in the world Exxon Valdez. [1] Different products have developed constantly in respond to changing demand for better in petroleum refinery. There a lot of processes involve in refinery, but the four main processes is refinery, separation, conversion and purification operation processes. At first the use of refinery is to create kerosene as cheaper and better compare to whale oil. Since all vehicles and airplane is combustion engine, it created more needs for petroleum. The location of Prince William Sound is so deep in where it only can be access by plane and boat. Due to this, the government and particular industries that involve had a tough time cleaning the disaster. By this major disaster, environment, economic and social were the main aspects were affected badly. It has given a negative impact on the lifestyle of the people in Prince William Sound.[2] A lot of action has been taken in the oil refinery industry after the oil spill, such as Operation Integrated Management System (OIMS), better radar system and Coast Guard in Prince William Sound. Introduction 2.1 Problem Statement By such disaster occurring, the exposure and early prevention steps would be taken by the society. Engineers will be efficient as in; safety and the quality would play a big role for them in their career by knowing the consequences of the major disaster. 2.2 Objective 1. The aim and objectives 2. To observe oil and refinery industrial processes and operations and learn the cause of the disaster 3. Risks of the oil spill disaster and pollution that affected all areas that lead to the oil spill disaster and pollution 4. The consequences of all the hazards of the oil spill disaster 5. To improvise and the changes in the management systems to prevent from the disaster to occur 2.3 Overview This research report is a case study of the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster that took place in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Within six hours of the grounding, the Exxon Valdez spilled around 10.9 million gallons of its 53 million gallon cargo of Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Eight of the eleven tanks on board were damaged. Even before this major disaster occurred, they were high risk of oil spill in Prince William Sound. There is still an unclear doubt why this oil spill took place. [1] 3. Aim and objectives of Exxon Mobil Corporation Exxon Mobil Corporation is merged in two companies which is Exxon and Mobil in the year of 1999. It is the worlds largest petroleum and petrochemical company and it is also the worlds leading traded international oil and gas company. Exxon Mobil markets fuel and lubricants are under three brands which are Esso, Exxon and Mobil. The corporation aims and objective is divided into few sectors: 3.1 Development Exxon Mobil is focused on serious and discipline investment decision to find the best solutions that can give a large amount of profit and also the same time increase the reliability and reduce the cost. Exxon Mobil is also focused on many major projects which have started with the design and the operating concept and delivery. 3.2 Employees Exxon Mobil is very choosy in taking in and retaining employers. They need employers who are extremely good and get the best out of them. They make the best of the best by sending them to the best training. They are very committed to maintain their safety during at workplace. A safe work environment enriched by diversity and characterized by open communication, trust and fair treatment.[3] 3.3 Communities Exxon Mobil is base throughout the world. Where ever the, they are very committed to be a good cooperate citizen. They maintain their high ethical standards, obey all applicable laws, rules and regulation and also respect the culture of the respective country. Among all those objectives above, they are more dedicated to running safe and environmentally responsible process. Exxon Mobil Corporation is self-motivated to be at the leading edge of competition in all the aspects of our business. They are very discipline and very selective in estimating the range of capital investment opportunities available to them. They create new ways such as develop proprietary technologies that provide a competitive edge. Their goals are achieved by flawlessly executing business plans and adhering to these guiding principles and the foundation policies. 3.4 Shareholders Exxon Mobil Corporation is committed to enhance the long term period value of the investment dollars trusted to them by the shareholders. At the end the shareholders would be rewarded with their superior returns. The momentum of this would enhance their management of their Corporation. [1] 3.5 Customers To remain successful in an industry, a company has to be firm to please those different perception customers to adapt to their needs. Exxon Mobil commits them self to offer high quality products and services at competitive prices. [1] Refinery Industrial Processes and operations Figure 1: Process Flow Diagram [4] Oil refinery industry is a process where a barrel of raw crude oil that contains a mixture of all sorts of hydrocarbons, is transform it to petrochemical fuel like petrol and diesel. All processes are done by heat, pressure and chemical reaction method. Valves and gadgets is the one regulated when the crude oil runs through many kilo metres of pipes. Computerizes gadgets used to monitor to control and optimize the processes that are undertaken. Refining Process In this industry, refining is the most simplest and common processes is under taken. It starts with the crude oil is been heated up to vaporize the oil in distillation tower. Naturally heavier molecules would not rise as lighter ones in the vapour and with this the vapour can condense with different levels. When the cooling process occurs at various degrees, the liquefied gasses are collected in condensation trays. By this various types of petrochemical material are obtained. [4] 4.2 Treatment The purpose of this process is for hydrocarbon streams to get ready for extra processing and to prepare complete products. Sometimes it includes the elimination or separation of aromatics and naphthenic also as impurities. Chemical or physical separation for instance dissolving, absorption, or precipitation using a variation and combination of processes containing desalting, drying, hydro desulfurizing, solvent refining, sweetening, solvent extraction, and solvent dew axing might be included. 4.3 Catalytic Cracking Catalytic processes are another type of processes. It involves the breaking of heavy molecules into more valuable light molecules. For an example the breaking of low bitumen to diesel or even petrol where this process takes place in a high temperature using an alumina silicate and alumina silicate acts as a catalyst to the process and helps to break down the molecule. This catalyst is in powder form. 4.6 Auxiliary operations and facilities Steam and power generation, process and fire water system, flares and relief system, furnaces and heaters, pumps and valves, supply of steam, air, nitrogen and other plant gases, alarms and sensors, noise and pollution controls, sampling, testing, inspecting, laboratory, control room, maintenance and managerial facilities. [5] 4.4 Other Refining Operations This includes light-ends recovery, sour-water stripping, solid waste and wastewater management, process-water treatment and cooling, storing and management, product movement, hydrogen production, acid and tail-gas treatment and sulphur retrieval. [5] 5. Risks in all areas that lead to disaster 5.1 Human Error Human error is the main contributing factors. The first mate or captain of the tanker Captain Hazelwood was under influence of alcohol, at that time of the incident. The captain was unable to concentrate on his responsibility. This could be avoided if the captain of the ship were more discipline during work. Hazelwood was send to alcohol rehabilitation for 28 days. The management knew about it and they followed his progress in rehab. The mistake the management did was, gave him the responsible to be a captain of vessel again. Instead of reinstating such a major responsible as a captain, they should have given him desk work job. Moreover the third mate who was in charge of the vessel when the major accident occurred. This is because he had very little sleep the night before grounding and they were lacking of staff on board tanker. When the Hazelwood went to sleep, the third mate had to take in charge to manoeuvre the tanker without having enough sleep.[6] 5.2 Failure of Coast Guard Safe proofing method has been established and agreed between State of Alaska, the Coast Guard and the oil industry. This is to avoid human error to occur. This method works when there is a form of iceberg the coast guard has to warn the captains and the captain has to slow down their tankers. However, most of the tankers did not follow to the rules including Exxon Valdez due to profit and eliminate down time. 5.3 Delayed Response Location of Prince Williams Sound is deep so deep in by geographical view, where can be only excessed by air or water made the response slow. Apart from the location, the weather also played another big factor. Due to delayed response on reacting to clean the mess, the oil polluted about 2000km of cost line and about 26000 square kilo meters of sea was contaminated. [10] Consequences Figure 2: State on-scene Coordinators [8] A tanker with crude oil from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska collides with a reef in Alaskas Prince William Sound and 11 million gallons of crude oil spilled into one of the biggest coastlines. The horrible outcome out of the incident could have been reduced but due to the location, it made it hard for the clean-up team and the government to react. Even Exxon Mobile did not react fast due to their unstable system in place to deal with the crisis. There is no any commitment given by Exxon Mobile to ensure that this same incident will occur again. [9] 6.1 Economical The total money to just clean the mess is approximately USD 2.1 billion dollars and fine is USD 5 billion dollars of this was the biggest penalizing fines ever charged out to a company. The total Exxon Mobile had to fork out USD 7.1 billion dollars. Those fishermens were affected badly, till their livelihoods were affected. They were relying on that for surviving. They lost around yearly gross valued at USD 174 million dollars. Due to this tourism industry were affected as well. [8] 6.2 Environmental Ecological system and wildlife were destroyed fully. Shoreline for 1400 miles was affected till they cant find those areas. A total of 1,015 dead Sea otters, 36,466 dead Sea birds 144 dead bald eagles, 302 harbour and more than 100,000 of oiled birds. The number for dead birds was the highest compare to Heneman oil spill happen in 1989. Some species sinked when they die, due to that the whole sea was polluted. Most of the marine mammals fall sick due to ingesting oil while trying to clean oil of their furs or feathers or eating intoxicated prey. [9] Improvement and Changes in the Management System 7.1 Operation Integrity Management System After the oil spill Exxon Mobil Corporation devised a complete 11 point plan which covers from management to employees and everything including facilities and training. Exxon Mobil implemented an approach where safety is a major factor. The multilevel (OIMS) covers an extensive level of element in management system. This elements could classified as leadership management in safety and accountability, design, constructing and maintaining facilities, readiness in facing emergency, adaptation to change, continuous assessment of performance and inquiries in accident and incidents. When this policy been implemented Exxon had to go through a lot of changes and this changes lead to more improve and safe environment. This creates, Exxon Mobil to be the leader for safety in the industry. [4] 7.2 Management Leadership Implementation of safety starts at the management and work itself down to the labour force. This is because at the management level, the planning of the health and safety procedure is done. Thus enforcing safety measures also the responsibility of the management. This is done by identifying the risk involves followed by setting clear performances criteria. This can be done by creating a clear risk management procedure. Once that is done the leadership in the organization should have a strict enforcement policy where everybody involve should be given proper training and additional exposure to the risk and safety measure are involve. [4] 7.3 Construction and Facilities When designing a facilities and construction of the facilities there is different type degree of safeties. For an example when u designing a machinery or tool, in this case best related to a building of a oil tanker. After the catastrophic disaster of Exxon Valdez, the safety emphasis on the design was changed. For an example, tankers now are re-enforced by having double hull and other safety measures are more efficient. The operation safety is emphasis by training where is given to all ship crew. For an example, navigation officers are given training in extreme condition ship manoeuvring. [4] Improvement and Policies After the incident Exxon Mobil had strict recruitment policies where all employees which are new has to go through an alcohol and drug screening. This was also implemented on existing staff and this was done after the incident. If in case there was a employee who was under the influence of any substance on board a vessel would be stopped from sailing again until they can prove that they would not repeat and gone through proper rehabilitation. [4] Conclusion The conclusion is Exxon Valdez was one of the major oil spill disaster. It effect of this incident was wide spread and very devastating. Resulting from a human error and negligence, many innocent people and environment was affected. From this case study it can be said that a good safety plan is required. Management also should always be responsible with their action and measures to prevent such disaster. Given the situation and late response to the disaster made the incident even worse. They were many guidelines that did not followed by the management and employees, for an example the captain who was under the influence of alcohol and the lack of crew members on board. Incident happens because of human error. The crew on board was very badly trained or not trained at all for any kind of situation. Therefore more training needed in future for all the employees, there should be always a body which monitors the training and sets on-going training for all the staffs. The management should also enforce health and safety guidelines in a regular basis. To ensure in the future there will be any similar incidents occurring. There also should be a team that ensures the maintainers of the tanker and equipment on board. The Exxon Valdez spill was a lesson well learned by everyone especially Exxon Mobil Corporation and other oil and gas companies.

Representational Systems :: Communication Engineering Papers

Representational Systems This paper seeks to define a representational system in such a manner as to be capable of implementation in a connectionist, or neural, network. A representational system is defined and demonstrated to possess the ability to produce outputs which achieve global minima. The paper concludes by showing that, while a feed-forward neural network is incapable of representation, representation may be implemented in a recurrent, or internal feedback, connectionist network. Introduction Representational systems are commonly in the Artificial Intelligence (AI) domain of symbolic logic. Expert Systems are programmed into computer systems by recording the step-by-step logical methodology of experts to minimize the costs or maximize the utility of their decisions. Logical statements, or beliefs, be they fuzzy or hard, are established as "rules". Another branch of AI, Connectionism, attempts to build systems, often in artificial neural networks (ANNs), that implement the methodologies of the illogical, inexplicable, or intuitive capabilities of distributed systems such as pattern recognition systems. Here, it is not some logical mapping of input to output, but rather a holistic host of inputs which indicate micro-features which may or may not synergistically produce a desired output. While connectionist systems are recognized as being capable of distributed, non-representational processing, they may also possess the capability to additionally perform the rule-based logic of representational systems. As will be shown, not all connectionist networks possess the appropriate architecture for this task. Thus, a neural network, depending upon its architecture, may possess the

Colton Jones Inc. Essay

Marion Jones was once the sole shareholder and president of Chempla, Inc.; in 20X1 she sold her stock to Westcoat Industries. She signed an agreement to be a consultant for five years. After being unable to make a profit Westcoat decided to sell their interest in Chempla, but were unable to find a buyer. Westcoat offered Chempla back to Marion Jones and an agreement was reached on September 1, 20X4. Included in the agreement Marion would be majority shareholder of the newly formed corporation. A purchase price was set for the net assets and market values of accounts receivable, inventories, property, plant, and equipment, and accounts payable were obtained. Marion Jones with other investors was able to finance the acquisition of Chempla’s net assets. Colton Jones, Inca doped LIFO basis of accounting. Under the U.S. GAAP Codification of Accounting Standards, Codification Topic 805: Business Combinations; Colton Jones accounted for the acquisition of Chempla as they should have. The acquisition method was used as it should have been, one entity was identified as the acquirer, an acquisition date was stated, and the recognition and measurement principals are present. All parts of the acquisition that needed to take place were present in the case.1 1 GAAP Codification of Accounting Standards, Codification Topic 805: Business Combinations Prestone, Riles, & Nye Associates Prestone, Riles, & Nye (PRN) is a marketing communications company with offices throughout the US and a subsidiary in the United Kingdom and they want to expand into Eastern Europe. In their efforts to do so PRN entered an agreement to acquire outstanding stock of Broadwick Communications, Inc., a firm with contacts in Europe. Brodwick has three shareholders owning 25% each and eight owning the remaining 25%. PRN is responsible to pay $14 million to Broadwick shareholders and form a new entity, BPRN International, Inc. BPRN will conduct the activities of Broadwick and will have two classes of stock, Common A, voting and Common B, nonvoting stock. Income distributions or losses will be shared with the ownership of Common B shares. BPRN will issue 48 percent of its voting stock to PRN and 52  percent to the former Broadwick shareholders. PRN plans to use the equity method to account for and report its investment BPRN. PRN’s decision to use the equity method is supported by APB 18: The Equity Method of Accounting for Investments in Common Stock, which states, â€Å"that the equity method of accounting for an investment in common stock should also be followed by an investor whose investment in voting stock gives it the ability to exercise significant influence over operating and financial policies of an investee even though the investor holds 50 percent or less of the voting stock†¦ an investment (direct or indirect) of 20 percent or more of the voting stock of an investee should lead to a presumption that in the absence of evidence to the contrary an investor has the ability to exercise significant influence over an investee.†1 PRN’s investment in BPRN meets these criteria. The reason for using the equity method is to accurately report PRN’s share of net income from BPRN and for PRN’s investment account to reflect its share of BPRN’s net assets. We agree with PRN’s decision to account for and report its investment in BPRN using the equity method since it meets the requirements of GAAP as stated above. PRN also plans to acquire a majority of the voting stock in BPRN, at which time it will become a subsidiary of PRN. Since the basic accounting procedures for applying the equity method are the same in each case PRN will be able to continue using the equity method if and when it acquires a majority of the voting stock and is required to prepare consolidated financial statements 1 APB Opinion No. 18, paragraph 17. Stanomat, Inc. Stanomat, Inc. plans to acquire the outstanding common stock of Kesser Instruments and make it a subsidiary. An agreement is made that allows Stanomat to acquire 55 percent in two months and will purchase additional shares and outstanding shares will be purchased over a four year period. Stanomat will issue a note to Kesser payable over four years for $20 million with interest 1.5 percent above prime. During the period of the note Stanomat will acquire unissued shares of Kesser and upon complete payment of the note Stanomat will own 100 percent of the subsidiary. At 55 percent of ownership, Stanomat will record its investment at 100 percent ownership. We do not believe it is appropriate for Stanomat to record its investment in Kesser based on the 100 percent ownership that it has committed to purchase. Stanomat will use the equity method to account for its investment in Kesser and prepare consolidated financial statements since it owns more than 50 percent of the company. However, in order to accurately reflect its share of Kesser’s assets and income, it should only record and report the portion that it is entitled to. FASB Statement 141R â€Å"requires an acquirer to recognize the assets acquired, the liabilities assumed, and any noncontrolling interest in the acquiree at the acquisition date.†1 Therefore Stanomat must recognize the noncontrolling interest held by Kesser until such time as it has acquired 100 percent ownership. In business combinations contingent shares are shares that will only be issued under certain circumstances or when certain conditions are met. A predetermined set of events must occur before the shares would be issued to investors. In this case, shares of Kesser stock will only be issued to Stanomat when a payment has been made. Deferred payment shares are issued to the investors in advance of payment. If the Kesser had issued its shares to Stanomat in advance of payment, Stanomat would be able to report and record the investment based on the 100 percent of shares it had received. If Stanomat records the investment in Kesser at the 55 percent level it would not be appropriate or practical to treat the purchase as a step acquisition. Step acquisition is only necessary when the investor owns a noncontrolling interest in the investee and then acquires additional interest giving it significant influence. â€Å"In a business combination achieved in stages, the acquirer shall remeasure its previously held equity interest in the acquiree at its acquisition-date fair value and recognize the resulting gain or loss, if any, in earnings.†2 Stanomat will acquire a controlling interest in Kesser in the first transfer of stock. Therefore it will be using the equity method to record the investment. Upon acquiring additional shares there will be no need to adjust its investment accounts. 1 FASB Statement 141R summary 2 FASB Statement 141R paragraph 48 Falco Industries, Inc. Falco, a supplier of automotive parts, sells its parts to aftermarket segments of the auto industry, including the manufacturer, rebuilder, warehouse distributor, mass merchandiser, and specialist. Falco acquired 10 percent voting common stock in an automotive store, Tidy Automotive, and in the same year acquired an additional 12 percent. Falco has a June 30 fiscal year and Tidy has a year end of October 31st. At year-end Falco Industries wanted to use the equity method to account for the investment in Tidy Automotive Stores. The market value of the investment in common stock on June 30th was 6 percent less that its acquisition cost. During the year Falco acquired a total of 22 percent of outstanding common stock in Tidy, which gives Falco between 20 and 50 percent of outstanding common stock, and therefore Falco’s interest in Tidy is significant. To account for this type of investment, Falco would need to use the equity method. The interest in Tidy would not be significant if Falco had acquired less that 20 percent, in this case Falco would need to use the cost method to account for the investment. If Falco had acquired more than 50 percent they would have to issue consolidated financial statements.

Biography of Captain Henry Morgan, Welsh Privateer

Biography of Captain Henry Morgan, Welsh Privateer Sir Henry Morgan (c. 1635–August 25, 1688) was a Welsh privateer who fought for the English against the Spanish in the Caribbean during the 1660s and 1670s. He is remembered as the greatest of the privateers, amassing huge fleets, attacking prominent targets, and being the worst enemy of the Spanish since Sir Francis Drake. Although he made numerous raids all along the Spanish Main, his three most famous exploits were the 1668 sack of Portobello, the 1669 raid on Maracaibo, and the 1671 attack on Panama. Morgan was knighted by King Charles II of England and died in Jamaica a rich man. Fast Facts: Henry Morgan Known For: Captain Morgan was one of the most notorious privateers of the 17th century.Born: c.  1635 in Llanrhymny,  WalesDied: August 25, 1688 in Lawrencefield, Jamaica Early Life   Morgans exact date of birth is unknown, but he is believed to have been born sometime around 1635 in Monmouth County, Wales. He had two uncles who had distinguished themselves in the English military, and Henry decided as a young man to follow in their footsteps. He was with General Venables and Admiral Penn in 1654 when they captured Jamaica from the Spanish. Privateering Morgan soon took up a life of privateering, launching attacks up and down the Spanish Main and Central America. Privateers were like pirates, only legal- they were mercenaries who were allowed to attack enemy ships and ports. In exchange, they kept most of the loot, although they did share some with the crown. Morgan was one of many privateers who had a â€Å"license† to attack the Spanish as long as England and Spain were at war (they fought on and off during most of Morgan’s life). In times of peace, the privateers either took to outright piracy or more respectable trades such as fishing or logging. The English colony on Jamaica, a foothold in the Caribbean, was weak, so it behooved the English to have a large privateer force ready for times of war. Morgan excelled at privateering. His attacks were well-planned, he was a fearless leader, and he was very clever. By 1668 he was the leader of the Brethren of the Coast, a group of pirates, buccaneers, corsairs, and privateers. Attack on Portobello In 1667, Morgan was sent to sea to find some Spanish prisoners to confirm rumors of an attack on Jamaica. He had grown legendary  and soon found that he had a force of some 500 men in several ships. He captured some prisoners in Cuba, and then he and his captains decided to attack the rich town of Portobello. In July 1668, Morgan took Portobello by surprise and quickly overran its meager defenses. Not only did his men loot the town, but they essentially held it for ransom, demanding and receiving 100,000 pesos in exchange for not burning the city to the ground. Morgan left after about a month. The sack of Portobello resulted in huge shares of loot for everyone involved, and Morgans fame grew even greater. Raid on Maracaibo By October 1668, Morgan was restless and decided to head once again to the Spanish Main. He sent out word that he was organizing another expedition. Morgan went to Isla Vaca and waited while hundreds of corsairs and buccaneers rallied to his side. On March 9, 1669, he and his men attacked the La Barra fort, the main defense of Lake Maracaibo, and captured it without much difficulty. They entered the lake and sacked the towns of Maracaibo and Gibraltar, but they lingered too long and some Spanish warships trapped them by blocking off the narrow entrance to the lake. Morgan cleverly sent a fireship against the Spanish, and of the three Spanish ships, one was sunk, one captured, and one abandoned. After that, he tricked the commanders of the fort (which had been rearmed by the Spanish) to turn their guns inland, and Morgan sailed past them at night. It was the privateer at his most devious. Sack of Panama By 1671, Morgan was ready for one last assault on the Spanish. Again he gathered an army of pirates, and they decided to attack the rich city of Panama. With about 1,000 men, Morgan captured the San Lorenzo fort and began the march overland to Panama City in January 1671. The Spanish forces were in terror of Morgan and abandoned their defenses at the last moment. On January 28, 1671, the privateers and the defenders met in battle on the plains outside the city. It was an utter rout, and the city defenders were scattered in short order by the well-armed invaders. Morgan and his men sacked the city and were gone before any help could arrive. Although it was a successful raid, much of Panamas loot was shipped away before the pirates arrived, so it was the least profitable of Morgans three major ventures. Fame Panama would be Morgans last great raid. By then, he was very rich and influential in Jamaica and had a great deal of land. He retired from privateering, but the world did not forget him. Spain and England had signed a peace treaty before the Panama raid (whether or not Morgan knew of the treaty before he attacked is a matter of some debate) and Spain was furious. Sir Thomas Modyford, the governor of Jamaica who had authorized Morgan to sail, was relieved of his post and sent to England, where he would eventually receive a light punishment. Morgan, too, was sent to England, where he spent a couple of years as a celebrity, dining in the fancy homes of lords who were fans of his exploits. He was even asked his opinion on how to improve Jamaicas defenses. Not only was he never punished, but he was knighted and sent back to Jamaica as lieutenant governor. Death Morgan returned to Jamaica, where he spent his days drinking with his men, running his estates, and fondly telling war stories. He helped organize and improve the defenses of Jamaica and administered the colony while the governor was absent, but he never again went to sea. He died on August 25, 1688, and was given a royal send-off. Morgan lay in state at the Kings House in Port Royal, ships anchored in the harbor fired their guns in salute, and his body was carried through town on a gun carriage to St. Peters Church. Legacy Morgan left behind a complicated legacy. Although his attacks put constant pressure on relations between Spain and England, Englishmen of all social classes loved him and enjoyed his exploits. Diplomats loathed him for violating their treaties, but the almost supernatural fear the Spanish had for him most likely helped drive them to the negotiating table in the first place. Still, Morgan probably did more harm than good. He helped build Jamaica into a strong English colony in the Caribbean and was responsible for lifting Englands spirits during an otherwise grim time in history, but he also was guilty of the death and torture of countless innocent Spanish civilians and spread terror far and wide on the Spanish Main. Captain Morgan remains a legend today, and his effect on popular culture has been considerable. He is considered one of the greatest pirates ever, even though he was actually not a pirate but a privateer (and would have been offended to be called a pirate). Certain places are still named for him, such as Morgans Valley in Jamaica and Morgans Cave on San Andres Island. His most visible presence today is probably as the mascot for the Captain Morgan brands of spiced rum and spirits. There are hotels and resorts named after him, as well as any number of small businesses in the places he frequented. Sources Cordingly, David. Under the Black Flag: the Romance and the Reality of Life among the Pirates. Random House, 2006.Earle, Peter G. The Sack of Panam Captain Morgan and the Battle for the Caribbean. Thomas Dunne Books, 2007.

Unit 5 ICT - Backup Policies essays

Unit 5 ICT - Backup Policies essays Think about Who, When, Where, What, How. You should know about full backup, incremental backup, generations of backup, online backup, periodic backup. An evaluation report can be written to decide on what software to buy. Factors to be considered include: Ease-of-use (including the HCI) Availability of technical support Compatibility with existing software and hardware Results of benchmark tests into performance Each factor is given a weighting according to the needs of the organisation. At the start of the systems life cycle, decisions have to be made about how to acquire the software that is needed. The options are: Software can be written by the end user A specialist department could design, write, test and evaluate the software External consultants could be called in to write and test the software An off-the-shelf package could be bought Software could be leased, with an annual fee payable for use. You need to understand the option of software emulation and the problems associated with it. Software can be written by the end-user (maybe using an application generator). What are the dangers here? You need to understand the difference between Alpha Testing and Beta testing. You need to understand the advantages of RDBMS software and the principle of normalisation. Evaluate the design of the database and arrange for necessary changes to be made Maintain the data dictionary (see below) This is a database about the database. It includes information about: Data lengths and field types Data validation restrictions This is an interface between the operating system and the user, which aims to make access to data as simple as possible. Its other functions are: It allows users to store, retrieve and update data It maintains the data directory ...

Love- Crime and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Love- Crime and Society - Essay Example Generally, crime is defined as the activity involving harm to the society. The dimensions of the crimes are widespread throughout the society (Albanese, 2002 ). There is no single explanation to why the rate of crimes is rising day by day and that why the books and institutions of justice have failed to address the opportunity and the facilitating factors of crimes with respect to the behavioral uplift of the individuals. Not only the areas with a low intensity of social and financial individuals are notorious but the high society members have also been originated to be occupied in at least some of the criminal activities if not all. In this paper, I will be highlighting the main issues in my selected areas of study followed by the steps taken to change or improve the unwanted outcomes. My study and explanations are based on the following thesis statement. â€Å"Biological and psychological factors positively correlate with the dimensions of crimes in a highly specialized environment and are directly proportional to the opportunities and factors facilitating the rates of these criminal activities.† Around the world, in many years that have passed, it has been observed that the rate of crimes is most commonly based upon the fact that the people inhabiting a certain area get influenced by the behaviors of their significant others. The definitional issues relating to the age, gender and race are widespread. Blue-collar crimes and that of juvenile crimes usually fall in the category of age dimension. These are the rational street crimes including the shoplifting, kidnapping, rape and vandalism. These crimes usually do not get a mature backup. Various studies indicate that there is more of the under-aged society members involved in such crimes as compared to bigger members (Flowers, 2003 ). Those kids who are involved in criminal activities because of any social reason, when caught and released with a minor punishment are most likely to go back into the same

Theoretical Frameworks of Our Knowledge and Understanding of Social Assignment

Theoretical Frameworks of Our Knowledge and Understanding of Social Problems - Assignment Example Social care is a proactive and dynamic activity, that primarily involves defining the vector of any body's actions and behavior. Again, the said concept may be written vaguely in its concept, as this might involve everybody and anybody. The short answer is yes!  Human beings have always found a multitude of ways to divide themselves. Color, creed, religion, class and ranks, all have provided a disparity in attitude and treatment over the millennia. However, defining them on grounds of social class on grounds of social care is incorrect. This is a stance that is largely misunderstood and can only be truly clarified once the correct stance of social care is understood.  It seems, therefore, that issues such as race, ethnicity, gender or sexuality provide a sore point for those of the middle class as they cannot find their true place in this tug-of-war. The current face of health care is largely a product of the advancement made during and after the World Wars. However, despite the magnitude and quality of work that was done at that time, the obvious constraint due to the war was that a systematic procedure for providing health care cannot be established. Much has changed since then, and the corporate face of the organizations in the changing world has brought about a new shape to the domain of clinical practice. With the inception of concepts like quality and the ISO standards, what the world of today has realized, is that documentation, for any system of work, is not only essential but is a must.  Given that social care is a kind of treatment restricted mostly to verbal exchanges, practitioners do not have to be medically qualified. In most countries, however, helpers must be trained, certified and licensed with a range of different licensing schemes and qualification requirements in place around the world. Helpers may be health care specialists, social workers, trained nurses, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, or professionals of other mental health discipli nes. Psychiatrists' training focuses on the prescription of medicines, with some training in social care. Health care specialists have special training in mental health assessment and research in addition to social care. Social workers have special training in mental health assessment and treatment as well as linking patients to community and institutional resources. "Social workers do not usually interpret or seek for unconscious motivations but bring cognitions and beliefs into the current focus of attention (consciousness) and through guided discovery encourage clients to gently re-evaluate their thinking" (Schultz, 2002).  Given the fact that all human beings are susceptible to challenging situations, it becomes imperative for them to qualify for the need for social care. The issue of race has always been an element of disparity among humans. The simple reason is, that no matter what your nationality, creed, or social status, the color of your skin is an ever permanent factor.

The Life and Influence of Jimi Hendrix Research Paper

The Life and Influence of Jimi Hendrix - Research Paper Example Hendrix was primarily a self-taught musician. He was also left-handed which created a problem with his father because he wanted him to play right handed for superstitious reasons. Hendrix was also an introvert and he was very shy. At one point in his life, his mother died and this sent him into more seclusion and a more focused concentration on his music. Hendrix had many challenges in school and eventually dropped out. He wanted to focus more on his music than on his school work and all he wanted to do was play music (Willett, 23). In 1956, he received his first real guitar from his father; it was an electric guitar without an amplifier. From that point on, Hendrix played music with any musician he could find to play with and listened very carefully to the music. The first time he played professional was with an amateur band of older boys. They were auditioning him to see if he could be a part of the group. The challenge was that Hendrix wanted to be a star even then and he played o ut. Hendrix first played with a group called "The Velvetones" where he played backup and he learned to play a mixture of blues, rhythm and blues, jazz and R&B; they also did a lot of dancing on the stage (Willett, 26). Later he played with a group called "The Rocking Kings." After they broke up Jimi next played with a group called "The Tomcats". After a short time working for his father in a landscaping business, Jimi went into the Army to escape his father and to get out of some legal problems.

Augustus de Morgan and George Boole s Contribution to Digital Electronics Essay Example for Free

Augustus de Morgan and George Boole s Contribution to Digital Electronics Essay Augustus De Morgan English mathematician and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was employed in the East India Companys service, and his grand father and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings. On the mothers side he was descended from JamesDodson,F. R. S. , author of the Anti-logarithmic Canon and other mathematical works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in 1816 on his way home. Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics, partly under the tuition of Sir G.  B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a Trinity scholarship. De Morgans love of wide reading somewhat interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from taking his M. A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge. As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary memory. De Morgans writings, however excellent, give little idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions, which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished themselves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had an important influence on the later Cambridge school. I. n spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathematical writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate. Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally published in the Quarterly Journal of Education (reprinted in The Schoolmaster, vol ii. ), he remonstrated against the neglect of logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called First Notions of Logic, giving what he had found by experience to be much wanted by students commencing with [[Euclid]]. In October 1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a paper printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (vol. iii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regarding the independence of De Morgans discovery, some communications having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets, in the [[Athenaeum]] and in the appendix to De Morgans Formal Logic. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgans discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived from the quantified predicate. The general character of De Morgans development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and original on his part. Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise, called Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Probable. This contains a reprint of the First Notions, an elaborate development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies. The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at intervals, in the years 1850, 1858,1860 and 1863, a series of four elaborate memoirs on the Syllogism, printed in volumes ix. nd x. of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. These papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic, in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render their contents better known by publishing a [[Syllabus]] of a Proposed System of Logic, from which may be obtained a good idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted. The article Logic in the English Cyclopaedia (1860) completes the list of his logical publications. Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea that the followers of the two great branches of exact science, logic and mathematics, had made blunders, the logicians in neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery. But it may be doubted whether De Morgans own system, horrent with mysterious spiculae, as Hamilton aptly described it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical works of Boole. Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgans writings remains still to be briefly mentioned; it consists of detached articles contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the years 1833-1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of the [[Penny]] Cyclopaedia, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy, physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute a sixth part of the whole Cyclopaedia, of which they formed perhaps the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac Newton and Edmund Halley for Knights British Worthies, various notices of scientific men for the [[Gallery]] of Portraits, and for the uncompleted Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society, and at least seven articles in Smiths Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Some of De Morgans most interesting and useful minor writings are to be found in the Companions to the British Almanack, to which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage, life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of them are as valuable now as when written. Among De Morgans miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere, 1836, including a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Know ledge Society; his Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial,1845, and his remarkable [[Book]] of Almanacks (2nd edition, 1871), which contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new, from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A.  D. 2000, may be found without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. c. up to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson, but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms, the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society 1839 and 1857), and Shroens Seven Figure-Table (5th ed. , 1865), were printed under De Morgans superintendence. Several works edited by him will be found mentioned in the British Museum Catalogue. He made numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years to the Athenaeum, and to Notes and Queries, and occasionally to The North British Review, Macmillans Magazine, c.  Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal Association in periodical publications, he published several separate pamphlets on the subject. In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours. The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all De Morgans sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom; and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan expressly wished, will long be connected with the London Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders. From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously almost unknown to him, dying on the 18th of March 1871. An interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for the 9th of February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who says, He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men benignant to every one who approached him, never forgetting the claims which weakness has on strength. De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent. He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he VIII. 1 a was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and Sir I.  Newton he entertained a confident belief in Providence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last. George Boole George Booles father, John Boole (1779–1848), was a tradesman of limited means, but of studious character and active mind. Being especially interested in mathematical science and logic, the father gave his son his first lessons; but the extraordinary mathematical talents of George Boole did not manifest themselves in early life. At first, his favorite subject was classics. It was not until his successful establishment of a school at Lincoln, its removal to Waddington, and later his appointment in 1849 as the first professor of mathematics of then Queens College, Cork in Ireland (now University College Cork, where the library, underground lecture theatre complex and the Boole Centre for Research in Informatics are named in his honour) that his mathematical skills were fully realized. In 1855 he married Mary Everest (niece of George Everest), who later, as Mrs. Boole, wrote several useful educational works on her husbands principles. To the broader public Boole was known only as the author of numerous abstruse papers on mathematical topics, and of three or four distinct publications that have become standard works. His earliest published paper was the Researches in the theory of analytical transformations, with a special application to the reduction of the general equation of the second order. printed in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal in February 1840 , and it led to a friendship between Boole and D. F. Gregory, the editor of the journal, which lasted until the premature death of the latter in 1844. A long list of Booles memoirs and detached papers, both on logical and mathematical topics, are found in the Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs published by the Royal Society, and in the supplementary volume on Differential Equations, edited by Isaac Todhunter. To the Cambridge Mathematical Journal and its successor, the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, Boole contributed twenty-two articles in all. In the third and fourth series of the Philosophical Magazine are found sixteen papers. The Royal Society printed six important memoirs in the Philosophical Transactions, and a few other memoirs are to be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal Irish Academy, in the Bulletin de lAcademie de St-Petersbourg for 1862 (under the name G Boldt, vol. iv. pp. 198–215), and in Crelles Journal. Also included is a paper on the mathematical basis of logic, published in the Mechanics Magazine in 1848. The works of Boole are thus contained in about fifty scattered articles and a few separate publications. Only two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were completed by Boole during his lifetime. The well-known Treatise on Differential Equations appeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences, designed to serve as a sequel to the former work. These treatises are valuable contributions to the important branches of mathematics in question. To a certain extent these works embody the more important discoveries of their author. In the sixteenth and seventeenth chapters of the Differential Equations we find, for instance, an account of the general symbolic method, the bold and skilful employment of which led to Booles chief discoveries, and of a general method in analysis, originally described in his famous memoir printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1844. Boole was one of the most eminent of those who perceived that the symbols of operation could be separated from those of quantity and treated as distinct objects of calculation. His principal characteristic was perfect confidence in any result obtained by the treatment of symbols in accordance with their primary laws and conditions, and an almost unrivalled skill and power in tracing out these results. During the last few years of his life Boole was constantly engaged in extending his researches with the object of producing a second edition of his Differential Equations much more complete than the first edition, and part of his last vacation was spent in the libraries of the Royal Society and the British Museum; but this new edition was never completed. Even the manuscripts left at his death were so incomplete that Todhunter, into whose hands they were put, found it impossible to use them in the publication of a second edition of the original treatise, and printed them, in 1865, in a supplementary volume. With the exception of Augustus de Morgan, Boole was probably the first English mathematician since the time of John Wallis who had also written upon logic. His novel views of logical method were due to the same profound confidence in symbolic reasoning to which he had successfully trusted in mathematical investigation. Speculations concerning a calculus of reasoning had at different times occupied Booles thoughts, but it was not till the spring of 1847 that he put his ideas into the pamphlet called Mathematical Analysis of Logic. Boole afterwards regarded this as a hasty and imperfect exposition of his logical system, and he desired that his much larger work, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities (1854), should alone be considered as containing a mature statement of his views. Nevertheless, there is a charm of originality about his earlier logical work that is easy to appreciate.